The Natural History of Caterpillar-Ant Associations

Abstract The caterpillars of many Lepidoptera are neither attacked nor tended by ants but nevertheless appear to be obligately ant-associated and benefit from the enemy-free space created ants. Obligate myrmecophiles that do not attract through stridulatory or chemical signaling limited habitats where reliably present for other reasons, either among ant-attended hemipterans, on ant-plants, around ant nests. Particularly in tropics, obligate associates passively coexist with more diverse than previously recognized, including, example, hundreds African species lycaenid subfamily Poritiinae. Mutualists parasites have been reported eleven families: Tineidae, Tortricidae, Cyclotornidae, Coleophoridae, Crambidae, Erebidae, Notodontidae, Hesperiidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae. Altogether, myrmecophily has originated at least 30 times Lepidoptera, groups may remain undiscovered. butterfly families Lycaenidae Riodinidae contain vast majority species: larvae 3841 (71%) ~5390 described 308 (20%) ~1562 known inferred ant-associated, both possess specialized, convergently developed exocrine glands devices communicate Many caterpillar-ant relationships characterized as mutualisms actually parasitic, can manipulate ultimately exert a fitness cost. In family highly specialized associations found largely Old World Australia, Southern Africa, stoichiometry soil micronutrients, particularly sodium phosphorus, climate, host plants, geography all selectively shape associations.